The Science of Toxicology

The Science of Toxicology Introduction to Toxicology: The science of Toxicology consists of the study of biology, chemistry, and medicine, that is concerned with study of harmful; effects of chemicals on living organisms. It also studies the harmful effects of the chemical, biological and the physical agents in biological systems that establish the extent of damage in living organisms. The relationship between the given dose and its effects on the exposed organism is of very high significance in toxicology. Variables that influence chemical toxicity, includes the given dosage, the probable route of exposure, species, age, sex and environment. A toxicologist is a scientist or medical personal who specializes in the study and observation of symptoms, function and mechanism, treatments and detection of venoms and toxins; especially in case of poisoning. To work as toxicologist one should get a degree in toxicology or a related field like biochemistry and the life sciences. The main branches of toxicology are: Forensic toxicology: It is the use of toxicology and other disciplines such as pharmacology, chemistry such as analytical chemistry and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death due to poisoning, and drug use. The chief concern for forensic toxicology is not always the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology used, but rather the obtaining and interpreting of the evidence and results. A toxicological analysis now can be done to various kinds of samples. A forensic toxicologist must minutely consider the context of an investigation, particularly any physical symptoms that are recorded, and any evidences collected at scene of the crime that helps in narrowing the search, such as any available chemicals powders and/or trace residue. Armed with this information and samples with which to work, the toxic substances that are present there, its concentrations, the probable chemicals effects on the person, all of these information are determined by the forensic toxicologist. In vitro toxicity: It is the scientific analysis of the effects of toxic chemical substances on cell cultured bacteria or mammalian cells. These methods are used primarily to identify dangerous chemicals, to verify the lack of certain toxic properties in the early stages of development of potentially useful new substances like therapeutic drugs, agro chemicals, food colours and additives and other useful substances. In vitro assays for xenobiotic toxicity are carefully considered by major government organizatios (e.g. EPA, NTP, FDA), to better assess human risks. There are major activities in using in vitro systems to advance understanding of toxicant activities, and the use of human cells, tissues and organs to define human-specific toxic effects. Environmental toxicology: It is a multidisciplinary field of science concerned with study of the harmful effects of various chemical agents, biological agents and physical agents on living organisms. it is a sub discipline of environmental toxicology that is concerned with studying the harmful effects of toxicants, at the general population and ecosystem levels. Medical toxicology: It is a medical subfield focusing on the diagnosis of health problems, their management and prevention of adverse health effects such as poisoning and other complications from medications, occupational toxicants, toxicants in the environment, and/or various other biological agents. Medical toxicologists personal are involved in the assessment and treatment for poisoning, the harmful drug reaction, overdoses and substance abuse. Medical toxicology practitioners are physicians, whose primary specialization is generally in emergency medicine, occupational medicine or pediatrics. Ecotoxicology: It is the study of the effects of toxic chemicals on the biological organisms, at the population, community and at the ecosystem levels. Study of Ecotoxicology is a multidisciplinary field, which combines toxicology and ecology. The ultimate aim of this approach is to be able to predict the effects of pollution so that efficient and effective action to prevent or remediate any adverse effect can be identified. In the ecosystems that are already affected by pollution, Eco toxicological studies can inform as to the best method for action to restore the ecosystem efficiently and effectively. Ecotoxicology differs from science of environmental toxicology in that it combines the effects of stressors across all the levels of biological organizations i.e. from the molecular to whole communities and ecosystems, whereas science of environmental toxicology focuses upon the effects at level of the individual and below. Entomotoxicology: It is the analysis of toxins in arthropods that feed on carrion. Using arthropods in corpse or at crime scene, investigators can correctly determine whether toxins or poisons were present in a body at the exact time of death. This technique is a major advancement in forensics. Before, such determinations were impossible in the case of the severely decomposed bodies, which were devoid of intoxicated tissue and body fluids. Ongoing researches into the effects of toxins on arthropod and their development has also allowed better estimations of the postmortem intervals. Forensic entomology is the application and also the study of insects and other arthropod biology to criminal matters. It also involves application of study of arthropods, such as insects, the arachnids, the centipedes, and millipedes, crustaceans to the criminal or legal proceedings. It is mainly associated with death investigations; however, it may also be used to detect drugs, poisons and determine the location of an incident, and also find the presence and time of when the wounds were caused. Forensic entomology can thus be further broken under three subparts: urban, stored-product and lastly medico-legal/medico-criminal entomology. Toxinology: It is the specialized field of science that deals mainly with the animals, plants, and microbial toxins. It has been defined as the scientific discipline dealing with microbial toxins, plant toxins, and animal venoms. This involves more than just the chemistry and mode of action of toxins. It deals with the working of venom, the poison-producing organisms, also the structure and functions of the venom glands, use of the venom or poison and also the ecological role of these compounds. Toxinology has also been further defined as the science of toxic substances produced by or stored in living organisms, their properties, and their biological importance for the organisms involved. Clinical toxinology: Within toxinology there is also a subgroup, i.e. clinical toxinologists, who studies the medical effects in humans, exposure to the toxins, also in animal venoms or in plant poisons. This includes problems such as venom from snakebite, currently considered to affect more than 2.5 million patients each year, with over more than 100,000 deaths. Clinical toxinology does not have specialist status yet within the field of medicinal study, unlike other fields such as surgery and radiology. However, training courses in clinical toxinology exists. Sample Preparation: Sample preparation is often the first step in an analysis; the result of this step can affect the rest of the analytical process. To get accurate results, a sample should be representative, it should be reproducible, homogenous, and must be suitable for column injection or other assay. The main steps in sample preparation are: Sample Identification Sample reagent and standard pipetting Sample extraction Output to analyzer format Preparative Steps: Removal of Soluble Protein – precipitation – filtration Extraction – single step liquid-liquid extraction – Multiple step liquid-liquid extraction (â€Å"back-extraction†) – solid phase extraction Chemical Modification – derivatization for increase in volatility of sample – chemical hydrolysis of glucuronide enzyme Concentration – evaporation Cell lysis or tissue homogenation Sample Characterization: There are many chromatographic assays (GC, GC/MS, HPLC, TLC, LC/MS/MS, ), that are used for characterization and toxicological analysis of sample. To understand them, it is best to break them down into their modular components/steps: Sample preparation Separation (the actual chromatography) Detection (UV/Vis spectrometry, Fluorescence spectrometry, Mass spectrometry). Chromatographic Components: Sample â€Å"loading† The â€Å"mobile phase† during separation. The â€Å"stationary phase† during separation. Separation of individual molecules in the sample components is always based on their relative affinity for the mobile phase versus the stationary phases. Because some of the molecules have higher affinity for the stationary phase, they will pass through column slower than the others and, therefore, will be separated. Separation of the different Molecules by Chromatography: After the injection, all molecules start out overlapping. Due to the varying relative affinity for the stationary phase versus the mobile phases, individual molecules thus begin to separate As the different molecules then elute off of the column, they are then detected as resolved â€Å"peaks†. Relative Retention Times: During the separation, the absolute rates/times for movement of the molecules are not always reproducible. For example, the columns can get dirty, thus decreasing the amount of stationary phase that is available for the interaction with molecules. This can be compared to shortening the length of the column. However, it affect the rate and all molecules in the same way. Therefore, their relative rates/times are highly reproducible. The â€Å"relative retention time† (RRT) is defined as the detection time for a individual peak divided by the detection time for a known internal standard. RRTs are characteristic and reproducible identifiers of individual molecules. Quantification of Drug Concentrations: Peak â€Å"area† generally correlates with the amount of drug that is loaded onto a column and on the original drug concentration. But, there can be sample-to-sample variations due to the extraction efficiency, the loading volumes, or the detection efficiency, etc. Again, the internal standard is utilized to correct for variations.–Similar to the relative retention time, relative peak intensity is defined and related to drug concentration. Unlike the relative retention time, the given variation in the peak area is not always similar for all the molecules. Thus, the internal standard is chosen to be chemically similar to the analyte of interest to best correct for variations. However, adequate similarity is not easy to predict or establish. Protocol for Quantification of Analyte Concentration Based Upon a Calibration Curve: A known quantity of an internal standard is first added to every sample (including controls and calibrators) before any other preparative step. All samples are then prepared through the identical preparative steps, separated by a chromatographic method and quantitatively detected. The relative peak intensities are measured for a series of calibrators with a fixed amount of internal standard and varying amounts of a known analyte. These relative peak intensities are fit to an equation, generally linear, to define a calibration curve. The relative peak intensities of unknown samples are then calculated and then related to the calibration curve to quantify the concentration of the analyte(drug) in the original clinical sample. Some Characterization Techniques: Affinity Chromatography: Affinity chromatography is used for separating biochemical mixtures based on the highly specific interaction between conjugates such as that between antigens and antibodies, enzymes and substrates, or receptors and ligands. Principle: Here, the stationary phase used is typically a gel matrix, often of agarose. Generally, we use an undefined heterogeneous group of molecules in solution, like, for example, growth medium or blood serum. The molecule of interest will be having a well-defined property, and can be put to use during the affinity purification process. This process can thus be seen as a process of entrapment, with target molecule getting entrapped on solid or stationary phase and/ or medium. The molecules of mobile phase component will not become trapped as they do not possess this property. The stationary phase is then removed from the mixture, washed and target molecule released from entrapment in process known as elution. The most common use of affinity chromatography is for the purification of recombinant proteins. Affinity chromatography has use in number of applications, including purification from nucleic acid, and purification from blood and also protein purification from cell free extracts. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC): It is a chromatography technique used to separate non-volatile and stable mixtures. Thin-layer chromatography analysis is performed on sheet of various mediums, such as glass, plastic, or aluminum foil, they are then coated with a thin layer of adsorbent material, like silica gel, cellulose and also aluminum oxide. This layer is known as the stationary phase. After the sample is applied on the plate, a solvent or solvent mixture (known as the mobile phase) is drawn up the plate via capillary action. Because different analytes have different rate of ascension on the TLC plate, separation is achieved. It can monitor the progress of a reaction, or determine the purity of substances and/or identify the compounds present in a given mixture. Some examples are: analyzing the fatty acids, detection of pesticides ,herbicides and/or insecticides in food and water, analyzing ceramides, analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensic toxicology, or identification of medicinal plants and their constituents and assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals. A number of enhancements to the original method have been made, to increase the resolution achieved with TLC, to make the different steps automatic and to allow more accurate quantitative analysis. This is called HPTLC, or high-performance TLC. Summary of Major Learning Points: Modular nature of chromatograpy. – Assays are divided into three steps: sample preparation, sample component separation and analyte detection. – The separation steps consist of sample loading, preparing a mobile phase and a stationary phase. Importance of an internal standard for – Calculating the relative retention times for component separation. – Calculation of the relative peak areas and the generation of a calibration curve for the quantification of drug concentrations in the original clinical sample. Analytical specificity provided by – Sample preparation techniques – Separation during chromatography (RRT) – Method chosen for detection

Alcoholism Problem Essay

Alcoholism is a chronic problem that includes difficulty in controlling drinking, having to drink consistently to get physical independence, being preoccupied with alcohol, and continually using alcohol regardless of problems it causes (Brick, 2004). Alcohol should not be legal in U.S. because it is impacts negatively on health, family, community and on a person’s education. Alcohol drinking is like taking a drug. It is a form of drug addiction and drug abuse. Alcoholism is a worldwide problem that affects many people. Drinking alcohol has negative short and long term effects. Alcoholism has been associated with adverse effects on health, family, community, and education (Marshall, 2000). However, the effects on a person depends on particular factors such as how often and how much alcohol is taken, a person’s age, gender, when a person begun drinking and how long they have been drinking, their health, and family history (Begleiter & Kissin, 1996). It is in this regard t hat alcohol should not be legal in the United States. Alcohol is addictive, and people become addicts end up spending a lot of money on alcohol. It means that when they spend all the money they have on alcohol, they forget their families, and are not able to support the community in anyway. Some resort to stealing to sustain their drinking habit. Alcohol addicts sometimes engage in robbery acts to get the money for drinks. Community becomes at risk of destruction with excessive alcohol consumption allowed. When many people engage in excessive consumption of alcohol, education becomes at risk. People drop out of school, and illiteracy level increase in the community. In addition, the progress and development of any community depends on the health of its people. Therefore, when alcohol puts the health of its members at risk, community suffers in the long run. Alcohol affects both female and male differently. Men who consume alcohol, daily have an increased risk of health risks. Such men can experience cancer and heart disease in the long-term and  low energy to sexual difficulties in the short-term (Brick, 2004). Men are more likely to suffer from liver cirrhosis, and have higher chances of being diagnosed with high blood pressure. Nearly 26.6% of deaths among men of be tween 16 and 24 years old can be attributed to alcohol consumption. Men tend to be more dependent of alcohol (Marshall, 2000). Drinking too much alcohol damages a person’s body organs such as liver, brain, stomach, heart, and intestines. Brain is adversely affected because the brain cells die leading to loss of memory, learning difficulties, brain disorders, confusion, and problems with attention (Blane & Leonard, 1999). Liver is highly affected because of the great possibility of developing cancer in the liver, throat and mouth. The stomach may also acquire ulcers. Long-term drinking has also been linked to stroke and heart failure. The nervous system can also experience damage leading to behavioral and physical problems (Dasgupta, 2011). These problems affect health, family, community, and education in the long-term because of expenses associated with alcohol consumption, and possible treatment measures. Alcohol poses many effects on the body such as fertility. It reduces levels of testosterone. As a result, it could decline sperm quantity and quality, and lead to loss of libido. Alcohol is toxic to the testicles, and affects hormones. It could hamper production of sperms, hinder them from developing properly, and slow their movement towards the egg. Alcohol can also limit the liver from metabolizing vitamin A properly. It also depresses the nervous system, and could result in difficulty in getting and keeping erection (Peters, 2008). Many young adults do not realize that alcohol has a fattening effect. Alcohol can reduce the amount of fat that the body burns for energy. The human body makes several attempts to eliminate alcohol very fast as it cannot remain in the body for storage. The process takes priority over nutrient absorption and burning of fat. In the long-term, there could be a serious damage in the appearance. Other effects include loss of hair in the body, breast enlargement, and withering of testicles (Dasgupta, 2011). Alcohol has also been associated with worsening of skin disorders such as rosacae. Rosacae skin disorder is responsible for expansion of blood vessels in the face making it redder. Heavy drinking can cause the appearance of pus spots and red bumps. It has also been linked to inflammation, pain and swelling in the joints. The effect is common among men of between 30 and 60 years old  (Hannigan, Spear, Spear & Goodlett, 1999). As mentioned earlier, heavy drinking increases the chances of heart disease, liver damage, bone disease, cancer, anxiety and depression, and type II diabetes. Heavy consumption of alcohol also caused inflammation on the pancreas and irritates stomach. These effects indirectly affect family, community and education (Peters, 2008). Women are not safe from alcohol either. The body of women takes much time to process alcohol compared to men. Women feel more effects of alcohol than men even when they drink the same amount. The fertility of women is at risk with heavy consumption of alcohol. Women are high risk of acquiring breast cancer, and adverse impacts of the menopause. Women are advised in several studies to avoid alcohol when trying to have a baby. Alcohol disrupts menstrual cycle in women, and limits their chances of conceiving. These are bad effects on the body, and not good for family and community in general. Therefore, alcohol should not be legal in the United States (Hannigan, Spear, Spear & Goodlett, 1999). While drinking less alcohol may make one look good, heavy consumption causes bad skin, tired eyes, and weight gain for both f emale and male. It also interferes with people’s sleep. Heavy consumers of alcohol often wake up and feel like they have not had enough rest. Alcohol dehydrates the body and skin. It deprives the skin of certain vital nutrients and vitamins. Hence, it is not good for health. Alcohol is also responsible for much divorce among couples due to fights in the family, and lack of finances for family upkeep (Dasgupta, 2011). Alcohol is depressant. It means that alcohol calms people down, and slows down some body organs. With only 0.05% level of blood-alcohol, a person begins getting dulled judgment, and his or her inhibitions get released. They then become clumsy and start having slurred speech with only a 0.10% blood-alcohol level. At 0.30% level of blood-alcohol, one nearly becomes unconscious. Any addition after that becomes extremely dangerous since at 0.45%, one can get into a coma. Brain shuts down from 0.70% and stop controlling the heart, breathing, and one may end up dead. Other short-term effects include blurred vision, blackouts and insomnia. These can lead to injuries, accidents, and even death. Drinking alcohol also causes hangover in the next morning, which is associated with nausea, headaches, heartburn, fatigue, thirst, and dizziness. There are many side effects of alcohol (Peters, 2008).Conclusion In conclusion, consumption of alcohol should be reconsidered in U.S because  of its adverse effects on health, family, community, and education. Alcohol should only be taken when necessary. The side effects are adverse and continue to destroy people across the world. Therefore, alcohol should not be legal in the United States because it is impacts negatively on health, family, community and on a person’s education. References Begleiter, H., & Kissin, B. (1996). The pharmacology of alcohol and alcohol dependence. New York: Oxford University Press. Blane, H. T., & Leonard, K. E. (1999). Psychological theories of drinking and alcoholism. New York [u.a.: Guilford Press. Brick, J. (2004). Handbook of the medical consequences of alcohol and drug abuse. New York: Haworth Press. Dasgupta, A. (2011). The science of drinking: How alcohol affects your body and mind. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield. Hannigan, J. H., Spear, L. P., Spear, N. E., & Goodlett, C. R. (1999). Alcohol and Alcoholism: Effects on Brain and Development. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis. Marshall, R. (2000). Alcoholism: Genetic culpability or social irresponsibility: the challenge of innovative methods to determine final outcomes. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Peters, A. R. (2008). Combined effects of alcohol and nicotine on subjective responses and cognitive functioning, Dissertation Abstracts International, 69-4

The Idiots Handbook to Top Essay Topics Revealed

The Idiot's Handbook to Top Essay Topics Revealed As soon as you've chosen your points, make sure to comment on all them for every one of the categories. Get Goofy Goofy topics still need sound reasoning and excellent writing. Why it isn't so bad to be homeless. Describe the college you would really like to visit. You may never keep us down. Ensure you give clear explanations of the things on your list too. A lot of students put on a uniform. School tests aren't powerful. What Does Top Essay Topics Mean? School should happen in the evenings. The six college article issues are found that you could locate on the business's web website. Our site provides custom writing help and editing help. Writing is an enjoyable way to pass the time for the two adults and kids alike. The Advantages of Top Essay Topics You cannot do both, since it is going to be too confusing for your readers. Very often it becomes tough to choose one particular topic either due to the many ideas in the student's head, or due to their complete absence. The teachers don't always assign the specific topic. In some instances, it may consist of studying your teacher in order to know your teacher's sense of humor. It's very likely to compose an article of a particular advice that you will need bear on thoughts and heart. Writing something which tickles someone's funny bone demands a great deal of prowess. As an example, let's say you select the very first topic from our list. Occasionally it happens at the very start, when you haven't any clue what things to begin with, lacking creativity and inspiration even to develop something brief. Be in the proper place in the most suitable time You should realize what sort of humor is for what. One of the serious hiccups in choosing funny argumentative essay topics is how comedy is quite a touchy field, and various individuals have various opinions of what comedy is about. If you don't know that fun is really among the costliest things on the planet of today, then you really do not know anything. Finding the Best Top Essay Topics Bear in mind which you can make funny argumentative essays if you do a few things. You might believe that interesting essay titles do all of the work, allowing you to add obvious examples and share ordinary ideas. It's quite easy to use in addition to self explanatory. Picking out the appropriate essay subject does call for a little function and also thought. Choose a law and explain why it's so important to you. All argumentative essays ought to have a conclusion paragraph. Colleges can tell whenever your essay is only a form essay. To compose an outstanding essay, it's critical to use specific academic language. It's very likely to compose an essay about a particular information that you have bear in mind and center. Although you'll have different conclusions in the conclusion of each paragraph throughout the text, you also must have a conclusion as a distinct role in the conclusion of your essay. To choose which subject you're likely to discuss, it's crucial to see the complete collection of good persuasive speech topics from the specific area of study. You need to understand what you will write about to devise a great research system. Therefore, for your coursework, you're want to have the very best ideas. College professors see that students are well-trained and inspired to compose essays when asked to achieve that. You may start to plan for your faculty essays before you start to finish your applications. On our site you will discover a lot more useful distinctive information that will certainly be practical for junior and higher school kids from, like common home task essay about Hamlet, together with, for instance, application essays for college for future students. The procedure for grading student papers can be a really boring one. From time to time, employing the very same topics over and over again makes students bored and not able to find inspiration to compose essays.

Essay on Forests and Coniferous Trees - 624 Words

Forests are basically a complex mix of living things such as animals, trees, shrubs, plants, fungi, and many more, as they cover about 40% of Canada’s land. As forests play an important role in this complex community, as we need those to survive to build shelter, food for animals, and most important is fresh air. There are many different types of forests that include different types of trees such as coniferous, and deciduous, such as boreal forests, mixed forests, deciduous forests, grasslands, cordilleran vegetation, west coast forests, and many more. Coniferous trees are a type of tree that is also called a needle-leaved tree, which drops its needles during the fall; this special tree grows in a triangular shape, making it†¦show more content†¦The good thing about this method is that its very useful for the loggers as they replant the trees, as in the future as the trees reach maturity and grows up uniformly in size and species. The bad thing about this method i s that if replanting fails, exposed soil may erode, and could damage the land. Loggers from the northern forests of pine, spruce, fir, aspen, and poplar are mostly cut in this manner. Some people think of clear-cutting as another method to destroy animals habitat. The next harvesting method is selective cutting, as the loggers only cut down mature trees of the desired size, age, and species, as for it is the least disruptive to the forest and to the animals. This method is the most expensive due to the care and time its used to cut down, as for the loggers cannot replant these trees again due to the space for a new uniformly forest, also it takes the longest. Trees that loggers cut down are usually hardwoods, such as sugar maple, are cut in this manner. As for these harvesting methods have their pros and cons in ways of economic value, time, and effort; they still bring great value to our everyday needs and values. 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